Opportunities for Supporting Self-efficacy Through Orientation & Mobility Training Technologies for Blind and Partially Sighted People
Maryam Bandukda, Catherine Holloway, Aneesha Singh, Giulia Barbareschi, Nadia Berthouze · 2021 · Proceedings of the 23rd International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility (ASSETS) · doi:10.1145/3441852.3471224
Summary
This paper examines how orientation and mobility (O&M) training shapes the self-efficacy beliefs of blind and partially sighted (BPS) people and identifies opportunities for technology to better support O&M training. The researchers conducted semi-structured interviews with 20 BPS people (aged 25-65, living in the UK, Ireland, and USA) and 8 Mobility and Orientation Trainers (MOTs) with 5-32 years of experience in the UK. The study is framed through Bandura's self-efficacy theory, which identifies four sources of self-efficacy: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and emotional/physiological states. O&M training — delivered by qualified specialists — teaches essential skills for safe independent mobility, from long cane techniques and indoor navigation to outdoor route learning and public transport use. MOTs employ multisensory strategies including tactile markers along routes, olfactory landmarks (coffee shops, bakeries), auditory cues (traffic sounds, water bodies), and tactile maps built with LEGO bricks. The research is motivated by the growing gap between demand for O&M services and their availability — in the UK, only 17% of BPS people are offered emotional support, adult services are severely limited, and the COVID-19 pandemic further disrupted face-to-face training. The findings are organized into four themes: tools and strategies for O&M training, technology use in O&M training, changing personal and social circumstances, and social influences.
Key findings
The study reveals that self-efficacy in mobility is not a static outcome of training but an evolving belief shaped by life transitions. Key life events that disrupted participants' mobility confidence included deteriorating vision (especially for those losing sight as adults, who described feeling helpless and housebound), moving to new and unfamiliar environments (requiring rebuilding of mental maps and seeking new O&M training), and becoming parents (fundamentally changing mobility needs — navigating with a pram while using a long cane was described as impossible). Several participants who lost sight as adults received minimal O&M support: "I received zero mobility training when I left, that was it." On technology, MOTs and BPS people held divergent views. MOTs cautioned that reliance on GPS navigation apps could create an "autopilot" effect that undermines mental mapping skills — "When satnav fails, you're stuck." BPS participants agreed that navigation apps alone are insufficient for learning new routes and crossing roads safely, but valued them for supplementing training between sessions. Participants specifically desired technology that could record landmarks along routes during training for later practice, enforce correct long cane movement patterns, and provide remote O&M support to bridge service gaps. Social influences proved critical: overprotective parents who limited children's independent exploration directly undermined self-efficacy development, and MOTs described working with families to build their confidence alongside the learner. The multisensory nature of O&M learning — using smell, sound, touch, and spatial memory — points to opportunities for VR/AR technologies that incorporate multiple sensory modalities rather than relying solely on audio and haptic feedback.
Relevance
This research reframes assistive navigation technology design by centering self-efficacy rather than task completion. The distinction is crucial: most navigation apps aim to make travel easier, but O&M training aims to build skills and confidence. Technology that simply provides turn-by-turn directions may actually undermine the learning goals of O&M training. For assistive technology developers, this suggests designing tools that support skill building — such as apps that help learners practice routes between training sessions, record and review landmarks, or receive feedback on cane technique — rather than just wayfinding. The finding that O&M needs change across major life transitions (vision loss, relocation, parenthood) argues against one-time training models and toward ongoing, technology-augmented support. For service providers and policymakers, the severe shortage of MOTs and the disruption caused by COVID-19 make a compelling case for blended O&M training models that combine essential face-to-face instruction with technology-supported practice. The social dimension — particularly the impact of family attitudes and overprotective parenting on BPS children's mobility development — highlights opportunities for technology-assisted interventions that educate and support families alongside BPS individuals.
Tags: orientation and mobility · blind and low vision · self-efficacy · assistive technology · navigation · training · rehabilitation · independent living · social support