Glossary

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Post-lingual Deafness(also: Post-linguistic Deafness, Acquired Deafness, Late-Onset Deafness)

Deafness that occurs after a person has acquired spoken language, meaning they have existing literacy in written and spoken language. Post-lingual deaf users can typically read and write fluently, making text-based accessibility features like captions and transcripts highly…

Pre-lingual Deafness(also: Pre-linguistic Deafness, Congenital Deafness)

Deafness that occurs before a person acquires spoken language, either present from birth or developing in early childhood. People with pre-lingual deafness typically use sign language as their primary means of communication and may have limited literacy in written/spoken…

Re-speaking(also: Respeaking, Speech-to-Text Relay)

A captioning technique in which a trained operator listens to a speaker and repeats (re-speaks) their words clearly into a high-quality microphone in a controlled environment, allowing automatic speech recognition software to generate captions with higher accuracy than direct…

Reading Literacy(also: Print Literacy, Text Literacy)

The ability to read and comprehend written text. In accessibility research with Deaf and Hard of Hearing populations, reading literacy is an important consideration because English literacy rates are statistically lower among deaf adults in the United States compared to the…

Real-Time Captioning(also: CART, Communication Access Realtime Translation, Live Captioning)

The instant conversion of spoken language into text displayed simultaneously as speech occurs, provided either by a trained human captioner or through automatic speech recognition (ASR) technology. Real-time captioning is a critical accessibility service for Deaf and…

Real-Time Captioning(also: Live Captioning, CART, Communication Access Realtime Translation)

The process of converting spoken language into text display in real time, typically with only a few seconds of delay. Professional real-time captioning (CART) uses stenographers with specialised shorthand keyboards who can type at speaking rates of 170+ words per minute,…

Remote Captioning(also: Remote CART, Remote Real-Time Captioning)

A live captioning service delivered at a distance, in which a human captioner (CART provider) or automatic speech recognition system receives an audio feed from a meeting, classroom, or event over the internet or a phone line and transmits transcribed text back to the user in…

Remote Interpretation(also: Remote Sign Language Interpreting, Distance Interpreting)

The provision of sign language or spoken language interpretation services through technology platforms that use live video streaming, allowing the interpreter to work from a different location than the participants. Remote interpretation encompasses both video remote…

Remote interpreting(also: Video remote interpreting, VRI, Remote sign language interpreting)

The provision of sign language interpretation or other communication access services through video technology, where the interpreter is located in a different physical space from the deaf or hard of hearing person. Remote interpreting uses networked video connections to link…

Search-by-Feature(also: Feature-based sign search, Linguistic-property search)

A sign-language dictionary search technique in which a user manually selects linguistic properties of the target sign — typically handshape, body-relative location, movement type, orientation, and number of hands — from a menu, and the system returns dictionary entries matching…

Search-by-Video(also: Video-based search, Search by video)

A sign-language dictionary search technique in which a user performs a sign into a webcam or camera and computer-vision-based sign recognition returns a ranked list of candidate dictionary entries. Search-by-video is easier for novice signers than search-by-feature because it…

Second Language Acquisition(also: SLA, L2 Acquisition)

The process by which a person learns a language other than their first (native) language. In deaf education and accessibility, second language acquisition theory is particularly relevant because written English is effectively a second language for native signers of American Sign…

See-Through Display(also: Optical See-Through Display, Transparent Display, OST Display)

A display technology that allows users to view digital content overlaid on the real world by projecting images onto a transparent or semi-transparent surface. Unlike opaque (occlusive) displays that block the user's view of the environment, see-through displays preserve direct…

Shadow Speaking(also: Shadow Captioning, Respeaking)

A captioning technique where a trained human operator listens to live speech and repeats (or "respeaks") it clearly into a speech recognition system, which then generates real-time captions. The shadow speaker simplifies and normalizes the speech — removing overlapping dialogue,…

Sign Language

A visual-gestural language system that uses hand shapes, movements, body language, and facial expressions to convey meaning. Sign languages are complete, natural languages with their own grammar and vocabulary and are not visual representations of spoken languages. There are…

Sign Language Interface(also: Sign-language interface, Signing interface)

A computing interface that accepts input from, or presents output to, a user in a signed language such as American Sign Language (ASL) or British Sign Language (BSL), rather than assuming a spoken or written language. Sign-language interfaces span sign-language recognition…

Sign Language Interpreter(also: SLI, Interpreter)

A professional who facilitates communication between Deaf or hard of hearing individuals and hearing individuals by translating between a sign language and a spoken language. Interpreters must be fluent in both languages and understand the cultural norms of both communities. In…

Sign Language Interpreting(also: Sign Language Interpretation, ASL Interpreting)

The professional practice of translating bidirectionally between a signed language (such as American Sign Language) and a spoken language (such as English) to facilitate communication between Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing individuals and hearing people. Sign language interpreters are…

Sign Name(also: ASL name sign, Name sign)

A unique sign in American Sign Language (or another signed language) used to uniquely identify an individual person or, in some proposals, an object or device, in place of fingerspelling their English name. Sign names are culturally significant in Deaf communities and are…

Sign language animation(also: ASL animation, Signing avatar technology)

Computer-generated animated characters that produce sign language from text or script input, offering a potentially scalable alternative to pre-recorded human signer videos for making information accessible to deaf users. Sign language animation systems must convey not only…

Sign language avatar(also: Signing avatar, Virtual signer)

A computer-generated animated character that produces sign language from text or speech input. While sign language avatars hold potential for scaling deaf accessibility, their premature deployment raises significant concerns: the World Federation of the Deaf and World…

Sign language detection(also: SL detection, Signing detection)

The automated identification of whether video content contains sign language communication, using computer vision techniques to analyse motion patterns around detected faces. Sign language detection is distinct from sign language recognition (which interprets specific signs): it…

Sign language translation(also: SLT, Sign-to-text translation)

The automatic conversion of sign language video into written or spoken language text using machine learning. Unlike sign language recognition, which identifies individual signs or glosses, sign language translation produces fluent natural language output that accounts for the…

Signer(also: Sign Language User, Signing Person)

A person who communicates using sign language. In accessibility contexts, signers may be deaf, hard of hearing, or hearing individuals (such as interpreters, children of deaf adults, or others who have learned sign language). When creating accessible video content, signers…

Signer Box(also: Signing Space, Sign Space)

The three-dimensional space in front of a sign language user within which signs are produced, typically extending from the waist to just above the head and about an arm's width to either side. The signer box is a critical concept in sign language video production, video…

Signer Placement(also: Interpreter Placement)

The spatial positioning of a sign language interpreter or signing instructor relative to instructional content in a video, videoconference, or immersive environment. Common arrangements include a side or corner window (typical in broadcast and videoconferencing), parallel…

Situational Awareness(also: Environmental Awareness)

The perception and understanding of elements in one's environment, including the ability to detect events, comprehend their significance, and anticipate what may happen next. For deaf and hard of hearing individuals, situational awareness is significantly affected by limited…

Sonic Agency

The right and ability to influence and interact with sound in a meaningful way, regardless of one's hearing ability. Sonic agency extends beyond auditory perception to encompass visual, tactile, and kinesthetic forms of musical expression, as well as access to the tools, spaces,…

Sound Amplifier(also: Google Sound Amplifier)

An Android accessibility feature that uses the smartphone's microphone and headphones to amplify and filter ambient sounds in real-time, making it easier for hard of hearing users to hear conversations and environmental audio. Sound Amplifier can boost quiet sounds, reduce…

Sound Awareness(also: Sound Awareness Technology, Environmental Sound Awareness)

The ability to perceive, identify, and respond to sounds in one's environment, and the assistive technologies designed to support this ability for Deaf and hard of hearing individuals. Sound awareness encompasses both safety-critical sounds (fire alarms, sirens, approaching…

Sound Awareness Technology(also: Sound Recognition Technology, Sound Notification System)

Assistive technology systems that detect, classify, and communicate environmental sounds to deaf and hard of hearing users through visual, haptic, or text-based notifications. Examples include smartphone apps that identify doorbells, alarms, and speech, as well as…

Sound Classification(also: Sound Event Detection, Audio Classification)

The automated process of identifying and categorizing sounds into predefined categories such as speech, music, alarms, animal sounds, or environmental noise. Sound classification is a foundational capability in sound awareness technologies for deaf and hard of hearing users,…

Sound Communication Technology(also: SCT)

Technologies designed to communicate aspects of sound through non-auditory sensory modalities, enabling access to audio information for people who are d/Deaf or hard of hearing. Examples include closed captions (text-based), vibrating vests (haptic), spectrograms (visual…

Sound Event Detection(also: Audio Tagging, Automatic Sound Recognition)

A machine learning technique that automatically identifies and classifies sounds within an audio stream, such as music, applause, laughter, environmental noises, and other non-speech audio events. In accessibility contexts, sound event detection can complement automatic speech…

Sound Prominence(also: Sound Salience, Auditory Salience)

The perceptual quality that makes certain sounds stand out from others in an auditory scene, determined by factors such as loudness, distinctiveness, proximity, and relevance to the listener. Sound prominence is a key parameter for sound awareness technologies serving deaf and…

Sound Recognition(also: Sound Classification, Audio Event Detection, Environmental Sound Recognition)

Technology that automatically identifies and classifies sounds in a user's environment, typically using machine learning models trained on audio datasets. In accessibility contexts, sound recognition systems help deaf and hard of hearing people become aware of environmental…

Sound awareness(also: Sound recognition, Environmental sound detection)

Technology that detects and identifies sounds in the user's environment and conveys that information through alternative modalities such as visual notifications or haptic alerts. For deaf and hard-of-hearing users, sound awareness systems can identify doorbells, fire alarms,…

Speaker Diarization(also: Speaker Segmentation)

The process of partitioning an audio stream into segments according to speaker identity, determining "who spoke when" in a multi-speaker recording or conversation. Speaker diarization is important for accessibility because deaf and hard of hearing individuals need to distinguish…

Speaker Identification(also: Speaker ID, Speaker Attribution)

Methods used in captions and subtitles to indicate which person is currently speaking, enabling viewers to follow conversations among multiple participants. Common in-text speaker identification techniques include double chevrons (>>) with speaker names, different text colors…

Speaking Behavior(also: Speaker Behavior, Speech Behavior)

In accessibility and HCI research, the observable communicative behaviors a speaker exhibits during conversation — including speech rate, voice intensity (loudness), articulation clarity (including hyperarticulation or over-enunciation), eye contact, gesturing, and pausing.…

Speech Error(also: Articulation Error, Pronunciation Error)

A deviation from the expected or standard production of speech sounds, including substitutions, omissions, additions, and distortions of phonemes. Speech errors are common among people who are deaf or hard of hearing, as limited auditory feedback makes it difficult to monitor…

Speech Reading(also: Lip Reading, Lipreading, Visual Speech Perception)

The practice of understanding speech by visually interpreting a speaker's lip movements, facial expressions, gestures, and body language. Speech reading is used by many Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing individuals as a communication strategy, often in combination with residual hearing…

Speech Visualization(also: Visual Speech Display, Speech-to-Visual Display)

Speech visualization refers to techniques that convert spoken language into visual representations to aid comprehension, particularly for individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing. These displays can range from real-time captioning and waveform displays to more abstract…

Speech-Reading(also: Lip-Reading, Lipreading, Visual Speech Perception)

The practice of understanding spoken language by visually interpreting the movements of the lips, face, tongue, and jaw of the speaker, along with contextual cues such as facial expressions and body language. Many deaf and hard of hearing people use speech-reading as one of…

Speechreading(also: Lipreading, Lip Reading)

A communication method that relies on observing visual and contextual cues, primarily the movements of a speakers lips, face, and body, to understand spoken language. Speechreading is used by many d/Deaf and hard of hearing individuals as a supplement to other communication…

Stenographer(also: Stenocaptioner, Court Reporter)

A trained professional who produces real-time verbatim transcription of speech, typically using a stenotype machine that maps chorded key combinations to phonetic syllables. In accessibility contexts, stenographers (sometimes called stenocaptioners or CART providers) produce…

Subtitles

Text displayed on screen that represents the spoken language in audio-visual content, primarily intended for viewers who do not understand the language being spoken. While often used interchangeably with captions, subtitles and captions serve different purposes: subtitles…

Survey Accessibility(also: Accessible Surveys, Inclusive Survey Design)

The practice of designing surveys, questionnaires, and assessment tools so they can be completed by people with diverse abilities, languages, and communication preferences. Survey accessibility encompasses providing content in multiple formats (text, audio, sign language video),…

TTY(also: TDD, Telecommunications Device for the Deaf, Text Telephone)

A text-based telecommunications device that enables people who are deaf, hard of hearing, or have speech disabilities to communicate over telephone lines by typing messages that are displayed on a screen or printed on paper. TTY devices were the primary means of telephone…

Tactile Captions(also: Haptic Captions, Vibrotactile Captions)

An enhanced captioning approach that supplements traditional text-based captions with vibrotactile feedback, allowing deaf and hard of hearing viewers to feel non-speech sounds (such as phone rings, doorbells, footsteps, or objects falling) through a wrist-worn or body-worn…